Technology: Know The Language

In these times of technological wonders, and the detriment of them as well, in the entries of this blog site, certain word’s and term’s may be used.  If your concerned about your technological security, or if so blessed, your families, particularly any children–read, learn, understand–know.

From basic/rudimentary ‘user’ to ‘tech guru’, you must understand “the dialect”.  Your experience, purchasing understanding, and knowing/understanding what your reading, will enhance your education, intellect, and you will fully comprehend the high stakes involved in security of your national technological security.

Know this foremost.  The military ‘discarded’ this form of communication because–among other reason’s–it can’t be fully secured.  And it is not impervious to ‘Electromagnetic Pulse‘.  There are many that don’t believe that.  But the fact remains that if it were not thrown away by the best minds of the American scientific military community, and its ‘Signal Corps’ thought it would be a lasting asset, I would not be writing this, and you would not be reading this.

In my life to serve ‘you’, as well as serve to live…

This is for ‘you’.

I will continue to add more definitions as the “…need to know…” arises.

*******************************************************************************

(November 19, 2011)

Hard Drive Definitions

Access

Access is the action of obtaining data from or writing data into a data storage device.

ANSI

American National Standards Institute.

ATA

Advanced Technology Attachment. ATA was originally defined as a standard for embedded fixed disk storage on IBM AT compatible PCs and is now the dominant storage interface.

Bit

Bit is an abbreviation for binary digit. A bit can only contain the value 1 or 0. The bit is the basic data unit for digital computers.

Buffer

The buffer is the storage area used to temporarily store data so that a difference in data transfer rates and/or data processing rates between sender and receiver can be compensated.

Byte (Further explanation/definition/expansive understanding of this item added March 24, 2012; scroll down further on this page)

A byte consists of eight bits.

Cache

Like the buffer, the cache is DRAM (dynamic random access memory) on the hard drive used to store temporary data that has recently been accessed or data waiting to be written to the disk.

Capacity

Capacity is the amount of data that can be stored in a given storage device, usually expressed in bytes.

Channel

A channel (referring to that on a data cable) is a collection of electronic circuits used for data writing and reading processes to and from magnetic media.

Data

Data is an ordered collection of information.

Gigabyte (GB)

A unit of storage. 1 GB can mean either 1,000,000,000 bytes using the decimal system or 1,073,741,824 bytes using the binary system. Most hard drive manufacturers define 1GB as 1,000,000,000 bytes, while the operating system will treat 1GB as 1,073,741,824 bytes. This is why the operating system shows the hard drive’s capacity as different to the manufacturer’s claim.

Jumper

Jumpers are used to set a hard drive’s attributes, such as Master/Slave. A jumper is in essence a simple on/off switch and when placed over two pins it is the same as closing a circuit. The combination of one or several jumpers results in different settings.

Latency

Latency refers to the delay that occurs when requesting a specific response. Less latency is better.

Megabyte (MB)

A unit of storage. 1MB=1,000,000 bytes decimal or 1,048,576 bytes binary. Hard drive manufacturers usually apply the decimal system while the operation systems apply binary system of calculating storage capacity.

PATA (Parallel ATA), IDE/EIDE (Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics)

ATA is the acronym for Advanced Technology Attachment, and it has become an industry standard hard drive interface for 15 years. ATA uses a 16-bit parallel connection to make the link between storage devices and motherboards, and is also called PATA to distinguish it from the newer SATA standard. In additional, ATA is also known as IDE or EIDE (Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics). Currently the two most popular standards for ATA hard drives are the ATA-6 (which is also known as Ultra ATA 100 or Ultra DMA 100) and ATA 133. The maximum bandwidth for the former is 100MB/s, and 133 MB/s for the latter.

SATA (Serial ATA)

SATA is an interface standard for connecting hard drives to computer systems, and is based on serial signaling technology. The advantages over PATA include longer, thinner cables for more efficient airflow within a computer chassis, fewer pin conductors for reduced electromagnetic interference, and lower signal voltage to minimize noise margin. The bandwidth of SATA is also far improved over today’s PATA – the SATA 1.0 can reach a maximum of 1.5Gb/s (150MB/s), while the latest SATA 2.5 standard can support up to 3Gb/s (300MB/s). As a result of so many advantages, the SATA interface is gradually replacing PATA as the mainstream hard drive interface in the personal storage market.

SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)

SCSI is a standard interface for transferring data between devices and computers. Thanks to its outstanding ability to compartmentalize diverse operation, SCSI is very suitable for multitasking operating environments. Also, SCSI enhances critical performance in situations where more than one device is connected. Before serial signaling technology was applied into the SCSI field, all SCSI interface standards used parallel technology to transfer data.

RAID (Redundant Array of Independent/Inexpensive Disks)

RAID is a method of using multiple hard drives together for data storage.  A RAID system with multiple hard drives appears as a single drive to the operating system.  Depending on the RAID level, the benefits provided by RAID is one or more of the following: better throughput, fault-tolerance or capacity (or something else) when compared to single hard drive.

1. RAID level 0 (or RAID 0) is known as striping, where data is striped across multiple hard drives. RAID 0 provides the most advanced throughput and capacity, but offers no fault-tolerance.

2. RAID level 1 (RAID 1) is known as mirroring, which stores the exact same data within at least two hard drives, this method shows excellent fault-tolerance and reliability, but delivers less capacity efficiency.

3. RAID level 0+1 and RAID 1+0 are both striping and mirroring, providing good fault-tolerance and throughput all at the same time.

There are other RAID levels available too, such as RAID level 5 and RAID level 6.

Read

Reading is the action of access a storage location and obtaining the stored data.

Write

Writing is the action of recording data on a storage device.

*******************************************************************************

Algorithm

An algorithm is a specific set of instructions for carrying out a procedure or solving a problem, usually with the requirement that the procedure terminate at some point. Specific algorithms sometimes also go by the name method, procedure, or technique. The process of applying an algorithm to an input to obtain an output is called a computation.

Binary

The base 2 method of counting in which only the digits 0 and 1 are used. In this base, the number 1011 equals . This base is used in computers, since all numbers can be simply represented as a string of electrically pulsed ons and offs. In computer parlance, one binary digit is called a bit, two digits are called a crumb, four digits are called a nibble, and eight digits are called a byte.

Cryptography 

The science of adversarial information protection.

Linguistics

The scientific study of language.

Evolution

A process in which something passes by degrees to a different Stage (especially a more advanced or mature stage)

I, [Universal Soldier], have been studying “Algorithmic, Binary, Cryptographic, Linguistic, Evolution”–since 1983–for military application, and in the communication security field. The understanding can be mastered knowing the definitions, and having a certain technological language base of knowledge to be able to see just where software, or operating systems trajectory may go.

********************************************************************************

“December, To Remember“

(This additional information added on December 16-17, 2011)

Software

Computer software is a general term that describes computer programs.  Related terms such as software programs, applications, scripts, and instruction sets all fall under the category of computer software.  Therefore, installing new programs or applications on your computer is synonymous with installing new software on your computer.

Software can be difficult to describe because it is “virtual,” or not physical like computer hardware.  Instead, software consists of lines of code written by computer programmers that have been compiled into a computer program.  Software programs are stored as binary data that is copied to a computer’s hard drive, when it is installed.  Since software is virtual and does not take up any physical space, it is much easier (and often cheaper) to upgrade than computer hardware.

While at its most basic level, software consists of binary data, CD-ROMs, DVDs, and other types of media that are used to distribute software can also be called software.  Therefore, when you buy a software program, it often comes on a disc, which is a physical means of storing the software.

Firmware

Firmware is a software program or set of instructions programmed on a hardware device.

It provides the necessary instructions for how the device communicates with the other computer hardware.  But how can software be programmed onto hardware?  Good question. Firmware is typically stored in the flash ROM of a hardware device.  While ROM is “read-only memory,” flash ROM can be erased and rewritten because it is actually a type of flash memory.

Firmware can be thought of as “semi-permanent” since it remains the same unless it is updated by a firmware updater.  You may need to update the firmware of certain devices, such as hard drives and video cards in order for them to work with a new operating system.  CD and DVD drive manufacturers often make firmware updates available that allow the drives to read faster media.  Sometimes manufacturers release firmware updates that simply make their devices work more efficiently.

You can usually find firmware updates by going to the “Support” or “Downloads” area of a manufacturer’s website.  Keeping your firmware up-to-date is often not necessary, but it is still a good idea.  Just make sure that once you start a firmware updater, you let the update finish, because most devices will not function if their firmware is not recognized.

Kernel (Not Colonel, Kernel)

[I Pray if you are reading this] Kernel is a term for the computing elite, so proceed at your own risk.  To understand what a kernel is, you first need to know that today’s operating systems are built in “layers.”  Each layer has different functions such as serial port access, disk access, memory management, and the user interface itself.  The base layer, or the foundation of the operating system, is called the kernel.  The kernel provides the most basic “low-level” services, such as the hardware-software interaction and memory management.  The more efficient the kernel is, the more efficiently the operating system will run.

Middleware

Middleware has two separate but related meanings.  One is software that enables two separate programs to interact with each other.  Another is a software layer inside a single application that allows different aspects of the program to work together.

The most common type of middleware is software that enables two separate programs to communicate and share data.  An example is software on a Web server that enables the HTTP server to interact with scripting engines like PHP or ASP when processing webpage data. Middleware also enables the Web server to access data from a database when loading content for a webpage.  In each of these instances, the middleware runs quietly in the background, but serves as an important “glue” between the server applications.

Middleware also helps different applications communicate over a computer network.  It enables different protocols to work together by translating the information that is passed from one system to another.  This type of middleware may be installed as a “Services-Oriented Architecture” (SOA) component on each system on the network.  When data is sent between these systems, it is first processed by the middleware component, then output in a standard format that each system can understand.

Middleware can also exist within a single application.  For example, many 3D games use a “3D engine” that processes the polygons, textures, lighting, shading, and special effects in the game.  3D engines are considered middleware, since they bring different aspects of the game together.  For example, the game’s artificial intelligence works in conjunction with the 3D engine to create the gameplay.

Game engine middleware includes a custom API, which provides developers with standard functions and commands used for controlling objects within the game.  This simplifies game development by allowing programmers to use a library of prewritten functions rather than creating their own from scratch.  It also means 3D engines can be used in more than one game.

HTTP

Stands for “HyperText Transfer Protocol.”  This is the protocol used to transfer data over the World Wide Web.  That’s why all Web site addresses begin with “http://”.  Whenever you type a URL into your browser and hit Enter, your computer sends an HTTP request to the appropriate Web server.  The Web server, which is designed to handle HTTP requests, then sends to you the requested HTML page.

URL

Stands for “Uniform Resource Locator.”  A URL is the address of a specific Web site or file on the Internet.  It cannot have spaces or certain other characters and uses forward slashes to denote different directories.  Some examples of URLs are http://www.cnet.com/, http://web.mit.edu/, and ftp://info.apple.com/.  As you can see, not all URLs begin with “http”.  The first part of a URL indicates what kind of resource it is addressing. Here is a list of the different resource prefixes:

• http – a hypertext directory or document (such as a Web page)
• ftp – a directory of files or an actual file available to download
• gopher – a gopher document or menu
• telnet – a Unix-based computer system that you can log into
• news – a newsgroup
• WAIS – a database or document on a “Wide Area Information Search” database
• file – a file located on your hard drive or some other local drive

The second part of a URL (after the “://”) contains the address of the computer being located as well as the path to the file.  For example, in “http://www.cnet.com/Content/Reports/index.html,” “www.cnet.com” is the address or domain name of the host computer and “/Content/Reports/index.html” is the path to the file.  When a address ends with a slash and not something like “.html” or “.php,” the Web server typically defaults to a file in the current directory named “index.html,” “index.htm,” or “index.php.”  So, if you type in “http://www.apple.com/” and “http://www.apple.com/index.html,” you should get the same page.  Go ahead and try it if you would like to ‘see‘ my example of this definition in action.

Spyware

As the name implies, this is software that “spies” on your computer.  Nobody likes to be spied on, and your computer doesn’t like it either.  Spyware can capture information like Web browsing habits, e-mail messages, usernames and passwords, and credit card information.  If left unchecked, the software can transmit this data to another person’s computer over the Internet.

So how does spyware get on your computer?  Just like viruses, spyware can be installed when you open an e-mail attachment containing the malicious software.  It can also be installed when you install another program that has a spyware installer attached to it. Because of the insidious nature of spyware, most people don’t even know when spyware is on their computer.  Fortunately, you can purchase anti-spyware utilities that will search for spyware on your computer and stomp the unwanted software out of your system.  A good way to prevent spyware from infecting your computer is to install a security program that lets you know when any program is being installed, so that you can choose to authorize or stop the installation.

Virtualization 

Virtualization can refer to a variety of computing concepts, but it usually refers to running multiple operating systems on a single machine.  While most computers only have one operating system installed, virtualization software allows a computer to run several operating systems at the same time.

For example, a Windows computer with VMware Workstation installed can run Linux within the Windows interface.  Similarly, a Macintosh computer can use Parallels Desktop to run Windows within the Mac OS X interface.  When another operating system (OS) is running on top of the main system, it is called a “virtual machine.”   This is because it acts like a typical computer but is actually running on top of another operating system.

Virtualization software acts as a layer between a computer’s primary OS and the virtual OS.  It allows the virtual system to access the computer’s hardware, such as the RAM, CPU, and video card, just like the primary OS.  This is different than emulation, which actually translates each command into a form that the system’s processor can understand. Since Macintosh and Windows computers now both use the “x86″ processor architecture, it is possible to run both OSes on the same machine via virtualization, rather than emulation.

Another type of virtualization involves connecting to a remote computer system and controlling it from your computer.  This is commonly referred to as remote access.

And that can happen to ‘your computer system’.

*******************************************************************************

(December 19, 2011: Update)

ActiveX

ActiveX is a technology introduced by Microsoft in 1996 as part of the OLE framework. It includes a collection of prewritten software components that developers can implement within an application or webpage. This provides a simple way for programmers to add extra functionality to their software or website without needing to write code from scratch.

Software add-ons created with ActiveX are called ActiveX controls. These controls can be implemented in all types of programs, but they are most commonly distributed as small Web applications. For example, a basic ActiveX control might display a clock on a webpage. Advanced ActiveX controls can be used for creating stock tickers, interactive presentations, or even Web-based games.

ActiveX controls are similar to Java applets, but run through the ActiveX framework rather than the Java Runtime Environment (JRE). This means you must have ActiveX installed on your computer in order to view ActiveX controls in your Web browser. Additionally, when loading a custom ActiveX control within a webpage, you may be prompted to install it. If this happens, you should only accept the download if it is from a trusted source.

While ActiveX provide a convenient way for Web developers to add interactive content to their websites, the technology is not supported by all browsers. In fact, ActiveX is only officially supported by Internet Explorer for Windows. Therefore, ActiveX controls are rarely used in today’s websites. Instead, most interactive content is published using Flash, JavaScript, or embedded media.

OLE

This stands for “Object Linking and Embedding.” It can be pronounced as “O-L-E,” or “Oh-lay!” if you are feeling exotic.  OLE is a framework developed by Microsoft (way back in Windows 3.1) that allows you to take objects from a document in one application and place them in another.  For example, OLE may allow you to move an image from a photo-editing program into a word processing document.

The OLE technology was initially created to allow the linking of objects between “compound documents,” or documents that support multiple types of data.  Microsoft has since developed OLE into a wider standard, known as the Component Object Model (COM). COM is supported by Mac, Unix, and Windows systems, but is primarily used with Microsoft Windows.  The COM framework is the foundation of ActiveX, which allows developers to create interactive content for the Web.

Application

An application, or application program, is a software program that runs on your computer. Web browsers, e-mail programs, word processors, games, and utilities are all applications. The word “application” is used because each program has a specific application for the user. For example, a word processor can help a student create a research paper, while a video game can prevent the student from getting the paper done.

In contrast, system software consists of programs that run in the background, enabling applications to run. These programs include assemblers, compilers, file management tools, and the operating system itself. Applications are said to run on top of the system software, since the system software is made of of “low-level” programs. While system software is automatically installed with the operating system, you can choose which applications you want to install and run on your computer.

Macintosh programs are typically called applications, while Windows programs are often referred to as executable files. This is why Mac programs use the .APP file extension, while Windows programs use the .EXE extension. Though they have different file extensions, Macintosh and Windows programs serve the same purpose and can both be called applications.

Web Page

Web pages are what make up the World Wide Web. These documents are written in HTML (hypertext markup language) and are translated by your Web browser. Web pages can either be static or dynamic. Static pages show the same content each time they are viewed. Dynamic pages have content that can change each time they are accessed. These pages are typically written in scripting languages such as PHP, Perl, ASP, or JSP. The scripts in the pages run functions on the server that return things like the date and time, and database information. All the information is returned as HTML code, so when the page gets to your browser, all the browser has to do is translate the HTML.

Please note that a Web page is not the same thing as a Web site. A Web site is a collection of pages. A Web page is an individual HTML document. This is a good distinction to know, as most techies have little tolerance for people who mix up the two terms.

Add-on

An add-on is a software extension that adds extra features to a program. It may extend certain functions within the program, add new items to the program’s interface, or give the program additional capabilities. For example, Mozilla Firefox, a popular Web browser, supports add-ons such as the Google toolbar, ad blockers, and Web developer tools. Some computer games support add-ons that provide extra maps, new characters, or give the player game-editing capabilities.

Most add-ons are available as self-installing packages. This means the user can simply double-click the add-on package to install the files for the corresponding program. Other add-ons may require the user to manually move files into specific directories. While not all programs support add-ons, many programs are now developed with add-on support, since it provides a simple way for other developers to extend the functions of the program.

However, not all software programs refer to these extra features as “add-ons.” For example, Dreamweaver supports “extensions,” which add extra Web development features, while Excel can import “Add-Ins” that provide the user with extra spreadsheet tools. Many programs also support plug-ins, which may be considered a type of add-on.

Applet

This a Java program that can be embedded in a Web page.  The difference between a standard Java application and a Java applet is that an applet can’t access system resources on the local computer.  System files and serial devices (modems, printers, scanners, etc.) cannot be called or used by the applet.  This is for security reasons–nobody wants their system wiped out by a malicious applet on some wacko’s Web site.  Applets have helped make the Web more dynamic and entertaining and have given a helpful boost to the Java programming language.

Install

Most software programs require that you first install them on your computer before using them.  For example, if you buy Microsoft Office, you need to install it on your computer before you can run any of the included programs such as Word or Excel.  You can install software from a CD or DVD, an external hard drive, or from a networked computer.  You can also install a program or software update from a file downloaded from the Internet.

Installing a software program writes the necessary data for running the program on your hard drive.  Often the installer program will decompress the data included with the installer immediately before writing the information to your hard drive.  Software updates, which are typically downloaded from the Internet, work the same way.  When you run the update, the installer file decompresses the data and then updates the correct program or operating system.

Installing software is usually a simple process. It involves double-clicking an installer icon and then clicking “I Agree” when the license agreement pops up. You may have to choose what directory on your hard disk you would like to install the software in, but often the installer will even choose that for you. Some software can be installed by simply dragging a folder or application program onto your hard drive. Either way, installing software is a rather simple process and should not be intimidating. If you can cook you dinner in the microwave, you can install your own software.

Website

A website, or Web site, is not the same thing as a Web page.  Though the two terms are often used interchangeably, they should not be.  So what’s the difference?  To put it simply, a Web site is a collection of Web pages.  For example, Amazon.com is a Web site, but there are millions of Web pages that make up the site.  Knowing the difference between these two terms can save you a lot of embarrassment.

Flash

When you see Flash on the Web, it most likely refers to Adobe Flash, a multimedia technology.  Flash allows Web developers to incorporate animations and interactive content into their websites.

Flash was originally released by Macromedia in 1996. It began as a basic animation tool and an optional plug-in for Web browsers. Over the next decade, Flash gained many new features and became a standard plugin included with nearly all Web browsers. In 2005, Adobe acquired Macromedia and took over development of the Flash technology. Today, Flash continues to be a ubiquitous Web standard and is included with all major Web browsers.

Because Flash animations can incorporate text and vector graphics, they typically don’t take up a lot of disk space.  The contents of a Flash animation may also be compressed to further reduce the file size.  This makes it possible for Flash content to be downloaded relatively quickly.  Still, large Flash animations may still take a few seconds to load in your browser.  Therefore, when you open a Web page and see a “Loading…” animation, it usually means Flash content is being downloaded to your computer.

To view Flash content in your Web browser, the Flash plug-in must be installed. While Flash is automatically installed with most browsers today, some animations may require an updated version of Flash to run.  Fortunately, you can download the latest Flash plug-in and standalone Flash Player for free from Adobe’s website.

File extensions: .FLA, .SWF

One other thing you should know about “Flash”:  “Flash” may also refer to flash memory.  Erasing a flash disk is often called “flashing” the memory.

Multimedia

Multimedia is the integration of variations of multiple forms of media.  This includes text, graphics, audio, video, etc.  For example, a presentation involving audio and video clips would be considered a “multimedia presentation.”  Educational software that involves animations, sound, and text is called “multimedia software.”  CDs and DVDs are often considered to be “multimedia formats” since they can store a lot of data and most forms of multimedia require a lot of disk space.  Due to the advancements in computer speeds and storage space, multimedia is commonplace today.

*******************************************************************************

(Added December 20-21, 2011; beginning at 1500 hours)

Operating System

Also known as an “OS,” this is the software that communicates with computer hardware on the most basic level.  Without an operating system, no software programs can run.  The OS is what allocates memory, processes tasks, accesses disks and peripherials, and serves as the user interface.

Thanks to operating systems, like Windows, Mac OS, and Linux, developers can write code using a standard programming interface, or API.  Without an operating system, programmers would have to write about ten times as much code to get the same results.

Of course, some computer geniuses have to program the operating system itself.

Examples:

Windows

Microsoft Windows is the most popular operating system for personal computers. There are several versions of the Windows operating system, including Windows XP (for home users) and Windows 2000 (for professional users). Earlier versions of Windows include Windows 3.1, 95, 98, ME, and NT. All Windows platforms use a graphical user interface (GUI), like the Mac OS, and also offer a command-line interface for typing text commands.

Mac OS

The operating system that runs on Macintosh computers.  It is pronounced, “mack-oh-es.” The Mac OS has been around since the first Macintosh was introduced in 1984.  Since then, it has been continually updated and many new features have been added to it.  Each major OS release is signified by a new number (i.e. Mac OS 8, Mac OS 9).

Since the core of the Mac OS was nearly decades old, Apple decided to completely revamp the operating system.  In March of 2001, Apple introduced a completely new version of the Mac OS that was written from the ground up.  The company dubbed it “Mac OS X,” correctly pronounced “Mac OS 10.”  Unlike earlier versions of the Mac OS, Mac OS X is based on the same kernel as Unix and has many advanced administrative features and utilities.  Though the operating system is much more advanced than earlier versions of the Mac OS, it still has the same ease-of-use that people have come to expect from Apple software.

Unix

A.k.a. UNIX, though the letters do not stand for anything.  The Unix operating system was first created in Bell Labs in the 1960′s.  It became popular in the 1970s for high-level computing, not on the consumer level.  Since a lot of Internet services were originally hosted on Unix machines, the platform gained tremendous popularity in the 1990′s.  It still leads the industry as the most common operating system for Web servers.  However, Unix remains somewhat of an ambiguous operating system, as there are many different  versions of it.  Some examples include Ultrix, Xenix, Linux, and GNU, which, making things even more confusing, all run on a number of different hardware platforms.  Most people do not need to use Unix, but computer Nerd/Geeks (like your host of ‘Warmasters Apprentice‘) seem to have the need to use it as much as possible.

API

Stands for “Application Program Interface,” though it is sometimes referred to as an “Application Programming Interface.” An API is a set of commands, functions, and protocols which programmers can use when building software for a specific operating system. The API allows programmers to use predefined functions to interact with the operating system, instead of writing them from scratch.

All computer operating systems, such as Windows, Unix, and the Mac OS, provide an application program interface for programmers. APIs are also used by video game consoles and other hardware devices that can run software programs. While the API makes the programmer’s job easier, it also benefits the end user, since it ensures all programs using the same API will have a similar user interface.

End User

The “end user” is the person that a software program or hardware device is designed for. The term is based on the idea that the “end goal” of a software or hardware product is to be useful to the consumer.  The end user can be contrasted with the developers or programmers of the product.  End users are also in a separate group from the installers or administrators of the product.

To simplify, the end user is the person who uses the software or hardware after it has been fully developed, marketed, and installed.  It is also the person who keeps calling the “IT Information Technology) guy” with questions about why the product isn’t working correctly.  The phrases “user” and “end user” mean the same thing.

Open Firmware

Open Firmware is a type of firmware that some computer systems use when they boot up. It controls the processor and performs system diagnostics before the operating system is loaded. Open Firmware also builds the “device tree,” which locates internal and external devices connected to the computer. Each device is then assigned a unique address so it can be used once the computer starts up.

Several types of computers use Open Firmware, including PowerPC-based Macintosh systems, Sun Microsystems SPARC-based workstations, and IBM POWER systems. (Most Windows-based PCs use the BIOS for the same purpose.) Because Open Firmware is an “open” standard, devices that support Open Firmware can be typically be used in multiple Open Firmware-based systems. For example, identical PCI cards could be used in both Sun and Macintosh-based computer systems.

To access the Open Firmware interface on a PowerPC-based Macintosh, press and hold “Command-Option-O-F” during startup. On Sun systems, the Open Firmware interface is displayed at startup and can be accessed afterwards by pressing “L1-A” (or Stop-A) while the computer is running.

Processor

This little chip is the heart of a computer. Also referred to as the “microprocessor,” the processor does all the computations such as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. In PCs, the most popular microprocessor used is the Intel Pentium chip, whereas Macintosh computers use the PowerPC chip (developed by Motorola, IBM, and Apple).

The speed of a computer’s processor is measured in megahertz, or cycles per second. But higher megahertz doesn’t always mean better performance. Though a 600-MHz chip has a clock speed that is twice as fast as a 300-Mhz chip, it doesn’t mean that the computer with the 600-Mhz chip will run twice as fast. This is because the speed of a computer is also influenced by other factors, such as the efficiency of the processor, the bus architecture, the amount of memory available, and the software that is running on the computer. Some processors can complete more operations per clock cycle than other processors, making them more efficient than other processors with higher clock speeds. This is why the PowerPC chip is typically faster than Pentium chips at that are clocked at higher megahertz.

Overclocking

For some , (including your host here at ‘Warmasters Apprentice’) fast is never fast enough. In the world of computers, a fast processor can be made even faster by overclocking it. Overclocking involves increasing the clock speed of the computer’s CPU past the rate at which it was originally designed to run.  Some ways to overclock a processor include increasing the CPU’s operating speed in the system BIOS or changing the hardware jumper settings for the processor.  Modifying these settings may allow the processor to run faster than set by the manufacturer, which may increase the overall performance of the computer.  However, since other settings, such as the memory speed, frontside and backside bus speeds, and other components are fixed, there may not be a significant increase in performance.  Regardless of how overclocking is done, it potentially may cause problems with the computer.  After all, when you overclock a computer, you are altering the manufacturer’s design of the machine (and making your warranty null and void!).  For example, if there is not enough electrical current to to power the processor at the new rate, it may slow down or stop running completely.  Also, if the heat sink cannot sufficiently cool the processor running at the faster rate, it may overheat, causing your computer to freeze or crash. This is actually a preventive measure, since the computer stops functioning when the CPU gets too hot.  Otherwise, the CPU may literally fry itself and your overclocked processor may become an overcooked processor.  In summary, overclocking a processor can be a risky endeavor.  It is best left to computer enthusiasts who understand their hardware and are willing to accept the risks associated with it.  Since overclocking voids your computer’s warranty, don’t expect the manufacturer to replace your cooked CPU for free.  If you want a fast machine that is supported by the manufacturer, buy a fast processor to begin with.

CPU

The “Central Processing Unit.”  This is the pretty much the brain of your computer.  It processes everything from basic instructions to complex functions.  Any time something needs to be computed, it gets sent to the CPU.  Every day, it’s compute this, compute that–you may think the CPU would need a break after awhile.  Indeed, but machines do not take breaks–it just keeps on processing.  The CPU can also be referred to simply as the “processor.”

GPU

This stands for “Graphics Processing Unit.”  Like the CPU (Central Processing Unit), it is a single-chip processor.  However, uniquely, the GPU is used primarily for computing 3D functions.  This includes things such as lighting effects, object transformations, and 3D motion.  Because these types of calculations are rather taxing on the CPU, the GPU can help the computer run more efficiently.

The first company to develop the GPU was NVidia, Inc.

Its GeForce 256 GPU can process 10 million polygons per second and has over 22 million transistors.  Compare that to the 9 million transistors found on the Pentium III chip.  There is also a workstation version of the chip called the Quadro, designed for CAD applications.  This chip can process over 200 billion operations a second and deliver up to 17 million polygons per second.

If only ‘you’ could think that fast, or at least as fast as a Warrior…

Clock Speed

Clock speed is the rate at which a processor can complete a processing cycle.  It is typically measured in megahertz or gigahertz.  One megahertz is equal to one million cycles per second, while one gigahertz equals one billion cycles per second.  This means a 1.8 GHz processor has twice the clock speed of a 900 MHz processor.

However, it is important to note that a 1.8 GHz CPU is not necessarily twice as fast as a 900 MHz CPU.  This is because different processors often use different architectures.  For example, one processor may require more clock cycles to complete a multiplication instruction than another processor.  If the 1.8 GHz CPU can complete a multiplication instruction in 4 cycles, while the 900 MHz CPU takes 7 cycles, the 1.8 GHz processor will be more than twice as fast as the 900 MHz processor.  Conversely, if the 1.8 GHz processor takes more cycles to perform the instruction, it will be less than 2x as fast as the 900 MHz processor.

Other factors, such as a computer’s bus speed, cache size, speed of the RAM, and hard drive speed also contribute to the overall performance of the machine. Therefore, while the processor’s clock speed is a significant indicator of how fast a computer is, it is not the only factor that matters.

Bus

The data on a computer’s bus goes up and down.  Each bus inside a computer consists of set of wires that allow data to be passed back and forth.  Most computers have several buses that transmit data to different parts of the machine.  Each bus has a certain size, measured in bits (such as 32-bit or 64-bit), that determines how much data can travel across the bus at one time.  Buses also have a certain speed, measured in megahertz, which determines how fast the data can travel.

The computer’s primary bus is called the frontside bus and connects the CPU to the rest of the components on the motherboard.  Expansion buses, such as PCI and AGP, allow data to move to and from expansion cards, including video cards and other I/O devices.  While there are several buses inside a computer, the speed of the frontside bus is the most important, as it determines how fast data can move in and out of the processor.

FSB (No, I am not writing of the Russian spy agency)

FSB stands for “frontside bus.”  The FSB connects the computer’s processor to the system memory (RAM) and other components on the motherboard.  These components include the system chipset, AGP card, PCI devices, and other peripherals.  Because the FSB serves as the main path from the processor to the rest of the motherboard, it is also called the “system bus.”  The speed of the frontside bus is measured in Megahertz or Gigahertz, just like the processor.  Many computers’ processors run faster than their system buses, so the FSB speed is typically a ratio of the processor speed.  For example, a Pentium 4 processor that runs at 2.4 GHz may have an FSB speed of only 400 MHz.  The CPU to FSB ratio would be 6:1.  A Power Mac G5, however, with a 2.0 GHz processor, has a 1.0 GHz frontside bus.  Therefore, its CPU to FSB ratio is 2:1.

The smaller the ratio, the more efficiently the processor can work.  Therefore, faster frontside bus speeds lead to faster overall performance.  When the CPU to FSB ratio is high, the processor often has to wait for data to be sent out over the system bus before getting new data to process.  Because of this, the FSB can be a bottleneck in a computer’s performance.  So if you seek a fast computer, don’t just examine the processor speed, but find out what the frontside bus speed is as well.

Cloud Computing (Or what pattern or shapes do you see in the clouds of the sky)

Cloud computing applies to applications and services offered over the Internet.  These services are offered from data centers all over the world, which collectively are referred to as the “cloud.”  This metaphor represents the intangible, yet universal nature of the Internet.  The idea of the “cloud” simplifies the many network connections and computer systems involved in online services.  In fact, many network diagrams use the image of a cloud to represent the Internet.  This symbolizes the Internet’s broad reach, while simplifying its complexity.  Any user with an Internet connection can access the cloud and the services it provides.  Since these services are often connected, users can share information between multiple systems and with other users.  Examples of cloud computing include online backup services, social networking services, and personal data services such as Apple’s MobileMe.  Cloud computing also includes online applications, such as those offered through Microsoft Online Services.  Hardware services, such as redundant servers, mirrored websites, and Internet-based clusters are also examples of cloud computing.

Workstation

It refers to a computer (and often the surrounding area) that has been configured to perform a certain set of tasks, such as photo editing, audio recording, or video production. An office may have several workstations for different purposes, which may be assigned to certain employees.

For example, one workstation may be used for scanning and importing images, while another is used for editing images.  Because workstations often work together like in the example above, they are commonly networked together.  This allows them to send files back and forth over the network, which is important for various types of media production.  To use another example, a user at a photo-editing workstation may prepare images to be used in a video clip.  Once the images are ready, he may send them to another user at a video-editing workstation, where they are incorporated into the video.  Once the video has been put together, the video file may be sent to another user at an audio production workstation where the soundtrack and other sound effects are added.  While workstations are often part of a network, they can be standalone machines as well. Even a home computer can be a workstation if it is used for certain kinds of work.  So if you wish to sound professional, the next time you send an e-mail to a friend from your “home PC”, you can let them know you are sending it from your “home workstation.”

*******************************************************************************

(Information added December 27, 2011)

What are you looking at?

Monitors

Plasma 

Plasmas feature an older technology, but don’t completely count them archaic.  They are less expensive, have deeper blacks for rich contrast, and handle sports and fast action motion well.  But they are energy intensive, using three to four times as much electricity as Energy Star LEDs.

Traditional LCD

Bright, with middle-of-the-road cost, traditional LCDs are prone to greyish blacks, and budget models can have blockier motion processing than other options.

LED-backlit LCD

LED displays can be brighter and thinner than plasmas and LCDs.  They are more energy conscious, and the top of the line models handle blacks as well as plasmas do.

*******************************************************************************

(Information added on December 27, 2011)

VGA

Stands for “Video Graphics Array.”  It is the standard monitor or display interface used in most PCs.  Therefore, if a montior is VGA-compatible, it should work with most new computers.  The VGA standard was originally developed by IBM in 1987 and allowed for a display resolution of 640×480 pixels.  Since then, many revisions of the standard have been introduced.

SVGA

The most common is Super VGA (SVGA), which allows for resolutions greater than 640×480, such as 800×600 or 1024×768.  A standard VGA connection has 15 pins and is shaped like a trapezoid.

DVI

Stands for “Digital Video Interface.”  DVI is a video connection standard created by the Digital Display Working Group (DDWG).  Most DVI ports support both analog and digital displays.  If the display is analog, the DVI connection converts the digital signal to an analog signal.  If the display is digital, no conversion is necessary.

There are three types of DVI connections: 1) DVI-A (for analog), 2) DVI-D (for digital), and 3) DVI-I (integrated, for both analog and digital).  The digital video interface supports high bandwidth signals, over 160 MHz, which means it can be used for high resolution displays such as UXGA and HDTV.  You may find DVI ports on video cards in computers as well as on high-end televisions.

HDMI

“High-Definition Multimedia Interface.” HDMI is a digital interface for transmitting audio and video data in a single cable.  It is supported by most HDTVs and related components, such as DVD and Blu-ray players, cable boxes, and video game systems.

While other types of A/V connections require separate cables for audio and video data, HDMI carries the audio and video streams together, greatly eliminating cable clutter.  For example, a component cable connection requires three cables for video and two for audio, totaling five cables in all.  The same information can be transmitted using one HDMI cable.

Because HDMI is a digital connection, HDMI cables are less prone to interference and signal noise than analog cables.  Also, since most components, such as DVD players and digital cable boxes process information digitally, using HDMI eliminates the analog to digital conversion other interfaces require.  Therefore, HDMI often produces the best quality picture and sound compared to other types of connections.

HDMI cables are typically more expensive than analog cables, largely because they cost more to manufacture.  But it is important to remember that with HDMI, you don’t need to buy separate audio and video cables.  Besides, the single all-purpose connection may alone be worth the difference to those who don’t like dealing with confusing cables and connections.  Just remember that before you buy an HDMI cable, make sure the devices you are connecting have HDMI connections available.

*******************************************************************************

(Information added January 2, Year of our Lord, 2012)

Are you being served?

Computer Servers

A server computer (often just called server) is a computer system that has been designated for running a specific server application or applications.  A server computer that is designated for generally only one server application is usually named for that application or purpose.  For example, a server that runs Apache HTTP Server software, or Microsoft’s IIS is typically designated as a web server, the computer running it is also simply called the web server.  There can be web servers, database servers, application servers, such as: email servers or an Exchange Server, Share Point servers, Pre-press servers, Network Video Servers, Domain Controllers, and Network Storage or Backup Server.  Server applications can be divided among application server computers over an extreme range, depending upon the workload.  Under light loading, every server application can run concurrently on a single computer.  Under heavy loading, multiple dedicated servers may be required for each application.  Under medium loading, it is common to use one server computer (dedicated server) per server application, in order to limit the amount of damage caused by failure of any single server computer or security breach of any single server application.  Any server computer can also be used as a workstation, but it is typically not, for support, maintenance, and risk management.

A server or server computer is also a designation for computer models intended for use running server applications, often under heavy workloads, unattended, for extended time. While any “workstation” computer can run server operating systems and server applications, a server computer usually has special features intended to make it more suitable, including more robust hardware and fail-safe technology.  Distinctions often include faster processor and memory, more RAM, larger hard drives, higher reliability, redundant power supplies, redundant hard drives (RAID), compact size and shape, PC tower chassis with single or dual processors, or modular design (e.g., blade servers often used in server farms), rack or cabinet mounting, serial console redirection, etc. High capacity storage servers are sometimes called Terra Servers.  Some servers are provided bare-bones, others built to order with numerous accessories, and others come preconfigured with the server OS and application software installed.  Two very popular classes of servers are those based upon the Intel Xeon processor and the AMD Opteron processors

The name server or server appliance also applies to network-connected computer appliances or “appliance hardware” that provides specific services onto the network.   Though the appliance is a server computer, loaded with a server operating system and a server application, the user need not configure any of it.  It is a black box that does a specific job.  The simplest servers are most often sold as appliances, for example switches, routers, gateways, print servers, net modems, hardware spam filters, and firewalls.

A server is defined as a multi-user computer that provides a service (e.g. database access, file transfer, remote access) or resources (e.g. file space) over a network connection.

A server is a computer that provides data to other computers.  It may serve data to systems on a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN) over the Internet.

Many types of servers exist, including web servers, mail servers, and file servers.  Each type runs software specific to the purpose of the server.  For example, a Web server may run Apache HTTP Server or Microsoft IIS, which both provide access to websites over the Internet.  A mail server may run a program like Exim or iMail, which provides SMTP services for sending and receiving email.  A file server might use Samba or the operating system’s built-in file sharing services to share files over a network.

While server software is specific to the type of server, the hardware is not as important.  In fact, a regular desktop computers can be turned into a server by adding the appropriate software.  For example, a computer connected to a home network can be designated as a file server, print server, or both.

While any computer can be configured as a server, most large business use rack-mountable hardware designed specifically for server functionality.  These systems, often 1U in size, take up minimal space and often have useful features such as LED status lights and hot-swappable hard drive bays.  Multiple rack-mountable servers can be placed in a single rack and often share the same monitor and input devices.  Most servers are accessed remotely using remote access software, so input devices are often not even necessary.

While servers can run on different types of computers, it is important that the hardware is sufficient to support the demands of the server.  For instance, a web server that runs lots of web scripts in real-time should have a fast processor and enough RAM to handle the “load” without slowing down.  A file server should have one or more fast hard drives or SSDs that can read and write data quickly.  Regardless of the type of server, a fast network connection is critical, since all data flows through that connection.

*******************************************************************************

(Added January 5, 2012; For the State Veteran Affairs ‘mammal‘ that attempted to speak [English and] French to me today; WARNING: This section may seem like ‘highly‘ technical information because–it is)

AIX

“Advanced Interactive Executive,” though some ‘Linux’ users refer to it as “Ain’t UNIX.” AIX is an operating system developed by IBM and is in fact–Unix-based.  It is typically used for enterprise servers and comes with a robust set of security options such as Kerberos V5 network authentication and dynamic secure tunnel authentication.  AIX allows the system administrator to divide memory, CPU, and disk access between various jobs.  The system supports IBM’s 64-bit POWER processor and is backwards-compatible with 32-bit applications.  It also runs most Linux applications (after recompiling them) and has full support for Java 2.  If all that ‘slang’ makes no sense to you, rest assured–AIX is not your typical consumer operating system.  It is mainly used for servers in large corporations, where I.T. pros/Nerds/Geeks work with it.

CMOS

“Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor.”  This technology is typically used in making transistors.  The “complementary” part of the term unfortunately does not mean these semiconductors are free.  Instead, it refers to how they produce either a positive or negative charge.  Because CMOS-based transistors only use one charge at a time, they run efficiently, using up very little power.  This is because the charges can stay in one state for a long period of time, allowing the transistor to use little or no power except when needed.  Because of their wonderful efficiency, processors that use CMOS-based transistors can run at extremely high speeds without getting [intensely] hot .  You may also find CMOS memory in your computer, which holds the date and time and other basic system settings.  The low power consumption of CMOS allows the memory to be powered by a simple Lithium battery for ‘many’ years.

iSCSI

“Internet Small Computer Systems Interface.”  iSCSI is an extension of the standard SCSI (see above for definition refresher) storage interface that allows SCSI commands to be sent over an IP based network.  It enables computers to access hard drives over a network the same way they would access a drive that is directly connected to the computer.

iSCSI is a popular protocol used by storage area networks, which allow multiple computers to share multiple hard drives.  For example, data centers can be spread out over multiple locations using iSCSI and a standard Internet connection.  While the data access time may be slower over the Internet than compared to a direct SCSI connection, iSCSI can serve as a helpful means for creating off-site backups and sharing large amounts of data across multiple locations.

Protocol

When computers communicate with each other, there needs to be a common set of rules and instructions that each computer follows.  A specific set of communication rules is called a protocol.  Because of the many ways computers can communicate with each other, there are many different protocols–too many for the average person to remember.  Some examples of these different protocols include PPP, TCP/IP, SLIP, HTTP, and FTP. Can you guess what the last “P” in each acronym stands for?  If you said “protocol,”  congratulations.

VLB

“VESA Local Bus.” (VESA stands for “Video Electronics Standards Association”).  The VLB, or VL-bus is a hardware interface on the computer’s motherboard that is attached to an expansion slot.  By connecting a video expansion card to the VLB, you can add extra graphics capabilities to your computer.  The interface supports 32-bit data flow at up to 50 MHz.  Though the VLB architecture was popular in the early 1990s, it has since been replaced by the newer and faster, but still three-lettered, ISA, PCI, and AGP slots.

LUN

This stands for “Logical Unit Number.”  LUN(s) are used to identify SCSI devices, such as external hard drives, connected to a computer.  Each device is assigned a LUN, from 0 to 7, which serves as the device’s unique address.  LUN(s) can also be used for identifying virtual hard disk partitions, which are used in RAID configurations.  For example, a single hard drive may be partitioned into multiple volumes.  Each volume can then be assigned a unique LUN.  However, few modern computers use LUN(s), since SCSI devices have mostly been replaced by USB and Firewire devices.

USB

“Universal Serial Bus.”  USB is the most common type of computer port used in today’s computers.  It can be used to connect keyboards, mice, game controllers, printers, scanners, digital cameras, and removable media drives, just to name a few.  With the help of a few USB hubs, you can connect up to 127 peripherals to a single USB port and use them all at once (though that would require quite a bit of dexterity).

USB is also faster than older ports, such as serial and parallel ports.  The USB 1.1 specification supports data transfer rates of up to 12Mb/sec and USB 2.0 has a maximum transfer rate of 480 Mbps.  Though USB was introduced in 1997, the technology didn’t really take off until the introduction of the Apple iMac (in late 1998) which used USB ports exclusively.  It is somewhat ironic, considering USB was created and designed by Intel, Compaq, Digital, and IBM.  Over the past few years, USB has become a widely-used cross-platform interface for both Macs and PCs.

FIREWIRE

This high-speed interface has become a hot new standard for connecting peripherals (no pun intended).  Created by Apple Computer in the mid-1990′s, Firewire can be used to connect devices such as digital video cameras, hard drives, audio interfaces, and MP3 players, such as the Apple iPod, to your computer.  A standard Firewire connection can transfer data at 400 Mbps, which is roughly 30 times faster than USB 1.1.  This blazing speed allows for quick transfers of large video files, which is great for video-editing professionals.  If 400 Mbps is still not fast enough, Apple Computer released new PowerMacs with Firewire 800 ports in early 2003.  These ports support data transfer rates of 800 Mbps–twice the speed of the original Firewire standard.

You may see Firewire referred to by its technical name, IEEE 1394, since it was standardized by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.  Both terms refer to the same technology.  If your computer doesn’t have Firewire and you wish it did, have no fear. As long as your computer has PCI slots, you can purchase a PCI Firewire card to add Firewire ports to your computer.

*******************************************************************************

(March 24, 2012: An additional explanation of [conventional] hard drive capacity)

Bit

The computer term “bit” comes from the phrase “Binary DigIT,” which is different than that thing you put around a horse’s mouth.  A bit is a single digit number in base-2 (a zero or a one) and is the smallest unit of computer data.  A full page of text is composed of about 16,000 bits.

It is important not to confuse bits with bytes.  Both are used to measure amounts of data, but it takes eight bits to make one byte.  The most common area where bits are used intstead of bytes is in measuring bandwidth (in bits per second).  Why?  Probably because it makes your Internet connection sound faster than it really is.

Byte

A byte is a unit of measurement used to measure data.  One byte contains eight binary bits, or a series of eight zeros and ones. Therefore, each byte can be used to represent 2^8 or 256 different values.

The byte was originally developed to store a single character, since 256 values is sufficient to represent all standard lowercase and uppercase letters, numbers, and symbols. However, since some languages have more than 256 characters, modern character encoding standards, such as UTF-16, use two bytes, or 16 bits for each character.

While the byte was originally designed to measure character data, it is now the fundamental unit of measurement for all data storage.

Kilobyte

This contains 2^10 or 1,024 bytes. A megabyte contains 1,024 x 1,024, or 1,048,576 bytes. Since bytes are so small, they are most often used to measure specific data within a file, such as pixels or characters. Even the smallest files are typically measured in kilobytes, while data storage limits are often measured in gigabytes or terabytes.

Megabyte

A megabyte is 2 to the 20th power, or 1,048,576 bytes.

It can be estimated as 10 to the 6th power, or one million (1,000,000) bytes.  A megabyte is 1,024 kilobytes and precedes the gigabyte unit of measurement.  Large computer files are typically measured in megabytes.  For example, a high-quality JPEG photo from a 6.3 megapixel digital camera takes up about 3MB of space.  A four minute CD-quality audio clip takes up about 40MB of space and CDs can hold up to 700MB of space.

Gigabyte

A gigabyte is 2 to the 30th power, or 1,073,741,824 bytes.

It can be estimated as 10 to the 9th power, or one billion (1,000,000,000) bytes.  A gigabyte is 1,024 megabytes and precedes the terabyte unit of measurement.  Hard drive sizes are typically measured in gigabytes, such as a 160GB or 250GB drive.  The phrase “gigabyte” is often often abbreviated as simply a “gig” when spoken.  For example, if you have a 250GB hard drive, you could say, “I have 250 gigs of disk space.”

(The prefix “giga” comes from the Greek word “gigas” which means; ‘Giant‘)

Terabyte

A terabyte is 2 to the 40th power, or 1,099,511,627,776 bytes.

It can be estimated as 10 to the 12th power, or 1,000,000,000,000 bytes. A terabyte is 1,024 gigabytes and precedes the petabyte unit of measurement. While today’s consumer hard drives are typically measured in gigabytes, Web servers and file servers may have several terabytes of space. A single 500GB hard drive can also be called a half-terabyte drive.

(The prefix “tera” comes from the Greek word meaning “monster.”  So, if you have a 500GB hard drive, you could say you have half a monsterbyte of disk space)

Petabyte

A petabyte is 2 to the 50th power, or 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes.

However, petabytes are often estimated as 10 to the 15th power, or 1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes.  To avoid ambiguity, the exact calculation is often referred to as a pebibyte instead of a petabyte, though both definitions are commonly accepted.

A petabyte is 1,024 terabytes and precedes the exabyte unit of measurement. Since even the largest hard drives are measured in terabytes, petabytes are only used to measure the storage space of multiple hard drives or other collections of data.

Exabyte

An exabyte is 2 to the 60th power, or 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes.

It can be estimated as 10 to the 18th power, or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes.  An exabyte is 1,024 petabytes and precedes the zettabyte unit of measurement.  While a 64-bit processor can theoretically use 16 exabytes of address space, exabytes are so large, the units are rarely used in a practical context.  For example, it is estimated that all the printed material in the world only takes up about five exabytes.

Zettabyte

A zettabyte is 2 to the 70th power, or 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 bytes.

It can be estimated as 10 to the 21st power, or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes.  A zettabyte is 1,024 exabytes and precedes the yottabyte unit of measurement.  Because of the enormous size of a zettabyte, this unit is almost never used.

(The prefix ‘zetta‘ comes from “Zeta,” which is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet)

Yottabyte*

A yottabyte is 2 to the 80th power, or 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 bytes.

It can be estimated as 10 to the 24th power, or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes.  The yottabyte is the largest unit of measurement for computer data, consisting of 1,024 zettabytes.

(The prefix “Yotta” comes from “Iota,” which is the ninth letter of the Greek alphabet)

* NOTE: A yobibyte is a unit of data storage that equals 2 to the 80th power, or 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 bytes.

While a yottabyte can be estimated as 10^24 or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes, a yobibyte is exactly 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 bytes.  This is to avoid the ambiguity with the size of yottabytes.  A yobibyte is 1,024 zebibytes and is the largest unit of measurement known to Humanity, at this time in the total history of ‘Technological Science’.

*******************************************************************************

(Added on May 14, 2012, for the curious in the advanced technological realm of understanding).  And no, I am not writing about any card playing game nor gambling.

Let’s discuss that ‘Computer Processing Unit‘, a.k.a., the ‘CPU’.

PetaFlop 

Petaflops is a unit of measurement used for measuring the performance of a processor’s floating point unit, or FPU. It may also be written “petaFLOPS” or “PFLOPS.” Since FLOPS stands for “Floating Point Operations Per Second,” the term “petaflops” may be either singular (one petaflops) or plural (two or more petaflops). One petaflops is equal to 1,000 teraflops, or 1,000,000,000,000,000 FLOPS.

Petaflops are rarely used to measure a single computer’s performance, since only the fastest supercomputers run at more than one petaflops. Therefore, petaflops are more often used when calculating the processing power of multiple computers. Also, since FLOPS only measures floating point calculations, petaflops is not necessarily a good indicator of a computer’s overall performance. Other factors, such as the processor’s clock speed, the system bus speed, and the amount of RAM may also affect how quickly a computer can perform calculations.

FPU

This stands for “Floating Point Unit.”  The first computer processors were far better at dealing with integers than with real numbers (a.k.a. floating point numbers).  So a separate FPU processor was developed to handle the floating point calculations.  That way, when the CPU encountered a floating-point expresion (ie. 1.62 * 0.87359), it would send the calculation to the FPU.  Since the FPU is specifically designed to handle floating-point math, it computes expressions involving real numbers more efficiently.  While the first floating point units used to be manufactured as individual chips, they are now typically integrated into the CPU.

Teraflops

Teraflops is a unit of measurement used for measuring the computing performance of a processor’s floating point unit.  It is equal to 1,000 gigaflops, or 1,000,000,000,000 FLOPS.  Teraflops may also be written as “teraFLOPS” or “TFLOPS.”  The term “teraflops” is both singular and plural, since FLOPS is an acronym for “Floating Point Operations Per Second.”

While FPU performance has historically been measured in gigaflops, some modern processors run over 1,000 FLOPS, which is why new measurements are often displayed in teraflops.  A similar transition has taken place with clock speeds, which are no longer measured in megahertz, but in gigahertz.  Teraflops are often used to measure supercomputer performance and the rate of scientific calculations, which are based primarily on floating point operations.

Flops

Stands for “Floating Point Operations Per Second.” FLOPS are typically used to measure the performance of a computer’s processor.  While clock speed, which is measured in megahertz (and currently in gigahertz), is often seen as an indicator or a processor’s speed, it does not define how many calculations a processor can perform per second.  Therefore, FLOPS is a more raw method of measuring a processor’s processing speed.

Still, a FLOPS reading only measures floating point calculations and not integer operations. Therefore, while FLOPS can accurately measure a processor’s floating point unit (FPU), it is not a comprehensive measurement of a processor’s performance.  In order to accurately gauge the processing capabilities of a CPU, multiple types of tests must be run.

Supercomputer

As the name implies, a supercomputer is no ordinary computer.  It is a high performance computing machine designed to have extremely fast processing speeds.  Supercomputers have various applications, such as performing complex scientific calculations, modeling simulations, and rendering large amounts of 3D graphics.  They may also be built to simply showcase the leading edge of computing technology.

If you are hoping to have a supercomputer on your desk, you may be out of luck. Supercomputers are typically several times the size of a typical desktop computer and require far more power.  A supercomputer may also consist of a series of computers, which may fill an entire room.  Examples of single machine supercomputers include the early Cray-1 and Cray X-MP systems developed by Cray Research as well as the more recent Blue Gene and Roadrunner systems developed by IBM.  System X is an example of a multi-system supercomputer, which was developed by Virginia Tech and is comprised of 1,100 Apple Xserve G5s.

Supercomputers cost a fortune to build and are expensive to maintain, which is why only a few exist in the entire world.  Furthermore, computing power continues to advance each year, meaning it isn’t too long before a ground-breaking supercomputer isn’t so super.  The good news is that the supercomputers of the past eventually become the personal computers of today.  Therefore, your home PC most likely has more computing power than many supercomputers from previous decades.  Now that’s evolution.

Clock Speed

Clock speed is the rate at which a processor can complete a processing cycle.  It is typically measured in megahertz or gigahertz.  One megahertz is equal to one million cycles per second, while one gigahertz equals one billion cycles per second.  This means a 1.8 GHz processor has twice the clock speed of a 900 MHz processor.

However, it is important to note that a 1.8 GHz CPU is not necessarily twice as fast as a 900 MHz CPU. This is because different processors often use different architectures. For example, one processor may require more clock cycles to complete a multiplication instruction than another processor.  If the 1.8 GHz CPU can complete a multiplication instruction in 4 cycles, while the 900 MHz CPU takes 7 cycles, the 1.8 GHz processor will be more than twice as fast as the 900 MHz processor.  Conversely, if the 1.8 GHz processor takes more cycles to perform the instruction, it will be less than 2x as fast as the 900 MHz processor.

Other factors, such as a computer’s bus speed, cache size, speed of the RAM, and hard drive speed also contribute to the overall performance of the machine.  Therefore, while the processor’s clock speed is a significant indicator of how fast a computer is, it is not the only factor that matters.

*******

Searching for something specific?  Try Veronica…

Veronica

The name actually stands for “Very Easy Rodent-Oriented Netwide Index to Computerized Archives.”  Weird, odd?  Yes indeed, I know.  The “rodent” part of the acronym refers to how the Veronica utility allows you to search all of the world’s “gopher servers” using keywords.  (That’s about 10 million items from over 6,000 gopher servers.) After searching for the terms, Veronica displays a list of gopher menus and articles containing the key words you searched for.  The more recent versions of Veronica can also search certain Web pages, newsgroups, and FTP sites.

Unlike most search engines, Veronica searches for keywords only in gopher server menu titles, and doesn’t look throught the entire text of documents.  When searching with Veronica, you can use the logical operators AND, NOT, and OR to help narrow your search. Also, typing an asterisk (*) at the end of a word will match anything starting with that word.  Sound familiar?  Any Unix users out there?

Alright, I know I may have caused some headaches, so I will end this update–for now…

*******************************************************************************

(Added May 14, 2012 @ 1644hrs.)

Variable

In mathematics, a variable is a symbol or letter, such as “x” or “y,” that represents a value. In algebraic equations, the value of one variable is often dependent on the value of another. For example, in the equation below, y is the “dependent variable” because its value is based on the value assigned to the “independent variable” x.

y = 10 + 2x

The equation above may also be called a function since y is a function of x. If x = 1, then y = 12. If x = 2, then y = 14.

Variables are also used in computer programming to store specific values within a program.  They are assigned both a data type as well as a value.  For example, a variable of the string data type may contain a value of “sample text” while a variable of the integer data type may contain a value of “11″.  Some programming languages require variables to be declared before they can be used, while others allow variables to be created on the fly. The data type, if not defined explicitly, is determined based on the initial value given to the variable.

A function within a program may contain multiple variables, each of which may be assigned different values based on the input parameters.  Likewise, a variable may also be used to return a specific value as the output of a function.  In the Java example below, the variable i is incremented during each iteration of the while loop, and x is returned as the output.

while (i < max)
{
x = x+10;
i++;
}
…
return x;

As the name implies, the value of “a variable” can change.  Variables that store values that do not change are called constants.